PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES

"Propaganda Techniques" is based upon "Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques" from "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published by Headquarters; Department of the Army, in Washington DC, on 31 August 1979
(from http://www.mcad.edu/classrooms/POLITPROP/palace/library/proptech.html )
Knowledge of propaganda techniques is necessary to improve one's own propaganda and to uncover enemy PSYOP stratagems. Techniques, however, are not substitutes for the procedures in PSYOP planning, development, or dissemination.
Techniques may be categorized as:
Characteristics of the content self-evident. additional information is required to recognize the characteristics of this type of propaganda. "Name calling" and the use of slogans are techniques of this nature.
Additional information required to be recognized. Additional information is required by the target or analyst for the use of this technique to be recognized. "Lying" is an example of this technique. The audience or analyst must have additional information in order to know whether a lie is being told.
Evident only after extended output. "Change of pace" is an example of this technique. Neither the audience nor the analyst can know that a change of pace has taken place until various amounts of propaganda have been brought into focus.
Nature of the arguments used. An argument is a reason, or a series of reasons, offered as to why the audience should behave, believe, or think in a certain manner. An argument is expressed or implied.
Inferred intent of the originator. This technique refers to the effect the propagandist wishes to achieve on the target audience. "Divisive" and "unifying" propaganda fall within this technique. It might also be classified on the basis of the effect it has on an audience.

SELF-EVIDENT TECHNIQUE

Appeal to Authority. Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position idea, argument, or course of action.

Assertion. Assertions are positive statements presented as fact. They imply that what is stated is self-evident and needs no further proof. Assertions may or may not be true.

Bandwagon and Inevitable Victory. Bandwagon-and-inevitable-victory appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to take a course of action "everyone else is taking." "Join the crowd." This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their interest to join. "Inevitable victory" invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already, or partially, on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is the best course of action.

Obtain Disapproval. This technique is used to get the audience to disapprove an action or idea by suggesting the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus, if a group which supports a policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people also support it, the members of the group might decide to change their position.

Glittering Generalities. Glittering generalities are intensely emotionally appealing words so closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs that they carry conviction without supporting information or reason. They appeal to such emotions as love of country, home; desire for peace, freedom, glory, honor, etc. They ask for approval without examination of the reason. Though the words and phrases are vague and suggest different things to different people, their connotation is always favorable: "The concepts and programs of the propagandist are always good, desirable, virtuous."
Generalities may gain or lose effectiveness with changes in conditions. They must, therefore, be responsive to current conditions. Phrases which called up pleasant associations at one time may evoke unpleasant or unfavorable connotations at another, particularly if their frame of reference has been altered.

Vagueness. Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application.

Rationalization. Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.

Simplification. Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.

Transfer. This is a technique of projecting positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a person, entity, object, or value (an individual, group, organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another in order to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. This technique is generally used to transfer blame from one member of a conflict to another. It evokes an emotional response which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities.

Least of Evils. This is a technique of acknowledging that the course of action being taken is perhaps undesirable but that any alternative would result in an outcome far worse. This technique is generally used to explain the need for sacrifices or to justify the seemingly harsh actions that displease the target audience or restrict personal liberties. Projecting blame on the enemy for the unpleasant or restrictive conditions is usually coupled with this technique.

Name Calling or Substitutions of Names or Moral Labels. This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable.
Types of name calling:
-Direct name calling is used when the audience is sympathetic or neutral. It is a simple, straightforward attack on an opponent or opposing idea.
-Indirect name calling is used when direct name calling would antagonize the audience. It is a label for the degree of attack between direct name calling and insinuation. Sarcasm and ridicule are employed with this technique.
-Cartoons, illustrations, and photographs are used in name calling, often with deadly effect.

Dangers inherent in name calling: In its extreme form, name calling may indicate that the propagandist has lost his sense of proportion or is unable to conduct a positive campaign. Before using this technique, the propagandist must weigh the benefits against the possible harmful results. It is best to avoid use of this device. The obstacles are formidable, based primarily on the human tendency to close ranks against a stranger. For example, a group may despise, dislike, or even hate one of its leaders, even openly criticize him, but may (and probably will) resent any non group member who criticizes and makes disparaging remarks against that leader.

Pinpointing the Enemy: This is a form of simplification in which a complex situation is reduced to the point where the "enemy" is unequivocally identified. For example, the president of country X is forced to declare a state of emergency in order to protect the peaceful people of his country from the brutal, unprovoked aggression by the leaders of country.

Plain Folks or Common Man: The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothes in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person. With the plain folks device, the propagandist can win the confidence of persons who resent or distrust foreign sounding, intellectual speech, words, or mannerisms.
The audience can be persuaded to identify its interests with those of the propagandist:
Presenting soldiers as plain folks. The propagandist wants to make the enemy feel he is fighting against soldiers who are "decent, everyday folks" much like himself; this helps to counter themes that paint the opponent as a "bloodthirsty" killer.

Presenting civilians as plain folks. The "plain folks" or "common man" device also can help to convince the enemy that the opposing nation is not composed of arrogant, immoral, deceitful, aggressive, warmongering people, but of people like himself, wishing to live at peace.

Humanizing leaders. This technique paints a more human portrait of US and friendly military and civilian leaders. It humanizes them so that the audience looks upon them as similar human beings or, preferably, as kind, wise, fatherly figures.

Categories of Plain Folk Devices:

Vernacular. This is the contemporary language of a specific region or people as it is commonly spoken or written and includes songs, idioms, and jokes. The current vernacular of the specific target audience must be used.

Dialect. Dialect is a variation in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from the norm of a region or nation. When used by the propagandist, perfection is required. This technique is best left to those to whom the dialect is native, because native level speakers are generally the best users of dialects in propaganda appeals.

Errors. Scholastic pronunciation, enunciation, and delivery give the impression of being artificial. To give the impression of spontaneity, deliberately hesitate between phrases, stammer, or mispronounce words. When not overdone, the effect is one of deep sincerity. Errors in written material may be made only when they are commonly made by members of the reading audience. Generally, errors should be restricted to colloquialisms.

Homey words. Homey words are forms of "virtue words" used in the everyday life of the average man. These words are familiar ones, such as "home," "family," "children," "farm," "neighbors," or cultural equivalents. They evoke a favorable emotional response and help transfer the sympathies of the audience to the propagandist. Homey words are widely used to evoke nostalgia. Care must be taken to assure that homey messages addressed to enemy troops do not also have the same effect on US/friendly forces.
If the propaganda or the propagandist lacks naturalness, there may be an adverse backlash. The audience may resent what it considers attempts to mock it, its language, and its ways.

Social Disapproval. This is a technique by which the propagandist marshals group acceptance and suggests that attitudes or actions contrary to the one outlined will result in social rejection, disapproval, or outright ostracism. The latter, ostracism, is a control practice widely used within peer groups and traditional societies.

Virtue Words. These are words in the value system of the target audience which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, etc., are virtue words.

Slogans. A slogan is a brief striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. If ideas can be sloganized, they should be, as good slogans are self-perpetuating.

Testimonials. Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. Several types of testimonials are:

Official Sanction. The testimonial authority must have given the endorsement or be clearly on record as having approved the attributed idea, concept, action, or belief.
Four factors are involved:
Accomplishment. People have confidence in an authority who has demonstrated outstanding ability and proficiency in his field. This accomplishment should be related to the subject of the testimonial.

Identification with the target. People have greater confidence in an authority with whom they have a common bond. For example, the soldier more readily trusts an officer with whom he has undergone similar arduous experiences than a civilian authority on military subjects.

Position of authority. The official position of authority may instill confidence in the testimony; i.e., head of state, division commander, etc.

Inanimate objects. Inanimate objects may be used in the testimonial device. In such cases, the propagandist seeks to transfer physical attributes of an inanimate object to the message. The Rock of Gibraltar, for example, is a type of inanimate object associated with steadfast strength.
Personal Sources of Testimonial Authority:
Enemy leaders. The enemy target audience will generally place great value on its high level military leaders as a source of information.

Fellow soldiers. Because of their common experiences, soldiers form a bond of comradeship. As a result, those in the armed forces are inclined to pay close attention to what other soldiers have to say.

Opposing leaders. Testimonials of leaders of the opposing nation are of particular value in messages that outline war aims and objectives for administering the enemy nation after it capitulates.

Famous scholars, writers, and other personalities. Frequently, statements of civilians known to the target as authoritative or famous scholars, writers, scientists, commentators, etc., can be effectively used in propaganda messages.
Nonpersonal Sources of Testimonial Authority:
Institutions, ideologies, national flags, religious, and other nonpersonal sources are often used. The creeds, beliefs, principles, or dogmas of respected authorities or other public figures may make effective propaganda testimonials.

Factors To Be Considered:
Plausibility. The testimonial must be plausible to the target audience. The esteem in which an authority is held by the target audience will not always transfer an implausible testimonial into effective propaganda.

False testimonials. Never use false testimonials. Highly selective testimonials? Yes. Lies (fabrications)? Never. Fabricated (false) testimonials are extremely vulnerable because their lack of authenticity makes them easy to challenge and discredit.
PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES WHICH ARE BASED ON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONTENT BUT WHICH REQUIRE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE PART OF AN ANALYST TO BE RECOGNIZED

Incredible truths. There are times when the unbelievable (incredible) truth not only can but should be used.
Among these occasions are:
When the psychological operator is certain that a vitally important event will take place.
A catastrophic event, or one of significant tactical or strategic importance, unfavorable to the enemy has occurred and the news has been hidden from the enemy public or troops.
The enemy government has denied or glossed over an event detrimental to its cause.

A double-cutting edge. This technique has a double-cutting edge: It increases the credibility of the US/friendly psychological operator while decreasing the credibility of the enemy to the enemy's target audience. Advanced security clearance must be obtained before using this technique so that operations or projects will not be jeopardized or compromised. Actually, propagandists using this technique will normally require access to special compartmented information and facilities to avoid compromise of other sensitive operations or projects of agencies of the US Government.
Though such news will be incredible to the enemy public, it should be given full play by the psychological operator. This event and its significance will eventually become known to the enemy public in spite of government efforts to hide it. The public will recall (the psychological operator will "help" the recall process) that the incredible news was received from US/a

 

 

 

PROPAGANDA MEDIA
"Propaganda Media" is based upon "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published in August 1979 by Department of the Army Headquarters in Washington DC; and "Psychological Operations (PSYOP) Media Subcourse PO-0816" by The Army Institute for Professional Development, published in 1983


PROPAGANDA MEDIA

Propaganda Media are categorized by methods of dissemination: face-to-face (interpersonal), audiovisual, audio, and visual.
Face-to-face (interpersonal) communication is the most effective means of transmitting a persuasive message. It is employed in rallies, rumor campaigns, group discussions, lectures, show-and-tell demonstrations, social organizations, social activities, entertainment, and individual person-to-person contact, all providing a participating experience for the individual or group to recall later.
Audiovisual media such as television, electronic tape recordings, and sound motion pictures are the second most effective means of communication available to the psychological operator. Effectiveness is based on seeing and hearing the persuasive message. These media are an excellent means of transmitting persuasive messages and eliciting a high degree of recall.
Audio media (loudspeakers and radio) lend themselves to the transmission of brief, simple messages and to personalization by use of the human voice. They require little or no effort by the audience, and generally, they have more appeal than visual media. Also, the barrier of illiteracy may be more easily overcome with audio media than with visual media (printed material).
Visual media can transmit long, complex material. Animated or still cartoons may be used to convey themes to illiterate and preliterate target audiences. Visual media generally have the least amount of popular appeal.
Themes are reinforced and the target audience given broad coverage by using several media to deliver the same basic message. For example, radio and television can augment leaflets; face-to-face communication can support newspaper circulation.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF MEDIA
Acceptability and credibility. A complete target analysis will indicate how acceptable and credible a particular medium is to the target audience.
Availability. The availability of media, the mechanical capability of message production, and the capability to deliver the message, as well as the ability of the audience to receive and understand it are important.
Timeliness. Production and dissemination lag for each medium must be considered. For example, a medium requiring a long production or dissemination time would not be suitable for a message exploiting a target of opportunity.
Quantity. The media selected should be mixed, one medium reinforcing the other, and delivered in sufficient volume to insure that the entire target is exposed to the message. Care, however, is required to prevent counterproductive over saturation of the target audience. This requires analysis of intensity and timing of propaganda dissemination.
Themes. The theme to be conveyed will have a bearing on the selection of the best media to transmit the message.
Suitability. The media selected must be suitable for the target. The language selected, vocabulary, and level are also important factors. For example, it would not be appropriate to use newspapers or other printed text to deliver a message to an illiterate audience. A professional journal might be the most suitable means of reaching a professional audience.
CATALOGING
Propaganda units should prepare catalogs of media material which applies to recurring themes and general audiences. These catalogs should include printed material, loudspeaker and videotapes, motion picture films, and specialty items available for psychological operations.
FACE-TO-FACE COMMUNICATION
Face-to-face communication ranges from two or more individuals in informal conversation to planned persuasion among groups. The credibility of the PSYOP messages delivered by face-to-face (interpersonal) communication is increased when the communicator is known and respected.
ADVANTAGES
Relationship. It employs an interpersonal relationship.
Audience selection. The audience can be deliberately selected and the appeal directed and tailored for it.
Assessment of impact. Feedback is immediate. The communicator can immediately assess the impact of his message and adjust his approach to obtain the desired response.
Limited support required. Limited technical and logistical support are required.
More credible. It can be more credible than other methods because the target audience can evaluate the source.
Presentation. Complex material can be presented in detail. Frequent repetition and slight variations can be readily used to influence the audience.
Expeditious. In some instances, particularly in primitive areas, it may be the most expeditious method of disseminating propaganda.
DISADVANTAGES
Limited use in tactical situations. Use is limited in general war due to the inaccessibility of the target individual or group. It has limited use in tactical combat since the psychological operator has little face-to-face communication with opposing forces until they are captured or defect.
Close control necessary. It must be controlled, especially at the lowest levels where each communicator has the responsibility to interpret policy and objectives. The control factor is best illustrated by trying to pass an oral message, one person at a time, throughout a group. By the time the message reaches the end of the group, it does not resemble the original message. Reinforcement by other media is necessary to eliminate this problem.
Limited by insecure areas. Security considerations limit the conduct of face-to-face communications. As the security situation improves and more areas are secure, area coverage can be extended.
Requires able communicators. It requires knowledgeable, orally persuasive individuals who can convince the target audience that the program and policies are irresistible and inevitable.
Normally require indigenous personnel. For effective communications, indigenous personnel are normally required.
Range of voice limited. The range of the human voice and the need for visual contact limit this method to relatively small audiences.
TELEVISION
Television, including video tape recording (VTR), is one of the most effective media for persuasion. It offers many advantages for propaganda operations, and its wide application in other fields contributes to its acceptance and use. It is appropriate for use in limited, general, and cold war and is particularly effective in FID (Foreign Internal Defense) and consolidation operations.
In places where television is not a common communication medium, receivers may be distributed to public facilities and selected individuals. A possible limitation in enemy countries, however, is that television receivers may be set to allow reception on only one or two channels under government control.
Television is an all encompassing-mass communication medium. Like radio, it makes use of the sense of hearing to convey an idea. Like printed material, it makes use of the sense of sight, adding the element of motion. And like the motion picture, it combines sight, sound, and motion. Television is immediate; in effect, it places the viewer in two locations simultaneously, creating the illusion of participating in a distant event.
ADVANTAGES
Speed. Television programs can reach large segments of the target audience rapidly. The transmission of events can be instantaneous.
Overcomes illiteracy. Illiteracy is not a barrier; an audience need not be able to read.
Unifies. Television brings people in widely separate locations closer together by exposing them visually to the same ideas and concepts.
Aural-visual. Television appeals to two senses, each reinforcing the other. This gives the viewer a sense of involvement.
DISADVANTAGES
Range. Geography and atmospheric conditions affect the strength and range of the signal. The signal may, however, be boosted with relay stations, airborne transmitters, or satellite relay to increase the transmission range. Airborne antenna relay domes extend the range of a central transmitter but at great expense.
Reception. Television sets are unevenly distributed throughout the world. Messages disseminated by television will normally be received only by those within an above-average income range and economic class in many areas of the world, particularly in developing nations. In some developing nations, however, group listening/viewing centers may be available, negating the link between income and access to television. The association should be carefully determined for each target country.
The fact that receivers in the target area may not be compatible with the transmission equipment is another disadvantage.
Power. Most television receivers require an outside source of electric power. Many areas of the world lack this power. The introduction of self-contained power packs partially eliminates this problem. If broadcasts are to be made from areas lacking power facilities, special generators and a fuel supply may be needed.
Vulnerability. Equipment and parts are fragile and extremely vulnerable to damage. Stations are easily identified and make excellent targets. Receivers are difficult to hide.
Program requirements. A substantial production staff and supporting equipment are required to produce daily programs. Each day's operation requires a large amount of film, video tape, and live programming to sustain a program schedule.
Maintenance. Maintenance is highly technical, requiring trained and skilled technicians and engineers; such people are difficult to find.
Personnel. Television is a complicated communication medium, demanding specialized personnel with a wide range of scarce skills.
Audience accessibility. Although TV is excellent in friendly or neutral areas, it will not reach audiences in hostile areas unless a means is found to enter sets in these areas. Incompatibility of receivers, extreme distortions caused by two transmitters on the same wavelength, jamming, and censorship limit the use of TV broadcasts to hostile areas.
Community viewing provides an opportunity to present TV programs which help the people identify with the sponsor (generally the established regime). If it is necessary to provide receivers, one technique is to place them initially in urban centers, extending them to rural areas as equipment and power become available; or vehicles equipped with power generators and TV sets may be moved into and out of areas as required.
VIDEO TAPE
Video tape, an offshoot of television, is an excellent means of recording and projecting messages. It can replay a scene from the camera immediately after it is recorded. The tape can be used in either portable or studio recording systems, being processed electronically as it moves through the video tape recorder.
Although most commercial tape is 5 centimeters (2 inches) wide, the US Army primarily uses 1.875-centimeter (3/4-inch) cassette tape. The scenes from each size tape can be readily dubbed on to the other.
ADVANTAGES
The results of the "take" can be seen immediately; if editing is necessary prior to release to the audience, it can be done electronically as the material is being produced. There is no time lag as with film which requires chemical processing.
The tape can be reused a number of times, erasing itself as it is run through the recorder, or it can be quickly erased on equipment made for that purpose and then reused.
Video tape is virtually indestructible and can be used in almost any environment in which humans live.
The tape can be placed on readily available video cassette players which feed directly into commercial television receivers. With special equipment, video-taped scenes can be projected onto large motion picture viewing screens. The requirement for special projection equipment is not unique, as special equipment is also required to project filmed scenes on television screens.
Video tape can instantaneously project scenes in black and white or color, with natural or dubbed sound, on open (public) or closed (limited audience) circuits.
With the use of video tape, scenes may be recorded for a permanent record or for future use.
DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantages of video tape are those inherent in the television medium.
MOTION PICTURES
Motion pictures combine many aspects of face-to-face communication and television by creating a visual and aural impact on the target audience. Since US Army PSYOP units are not able to produce motion pictures, appropriate films may be selected from available sources; effects on the target audience must be carefully considered.
Four general types of motion pictures are adaptable for psychological operations:
Entertainment. These are standard commercial productions, including animated cartoons. Entertainment films developed specifically for propaganda purposes can be very effective as the themes may be woven into the plot of the movie. These films can be very effective in gaining attention for other propaganda.
Newsreels. In the developing nations, newsreels are still a major attraction. They are on the scene and show exactly what is happening or, with good editing, give that impression. By careful, skilled editing and arrangement of sequence, news events can be used as propaganda.
Documentary. This type of film-ostensibly an objective presentation of a scene, place, condition of life, or a social or political problem-is a prime means of propagandizing a target audience. This is done by careful selection and sequencing of scenes and events.
Training films. Themes can be hidden in the presentation. A number of US Government-produced films are available for use by the military psychological operator. They must, however, be selected with care, as many exploit particular situations and viewpoints in a biased manner.
ADVANTAGES
Themes and objectives may be dramatized to create realism. The dramatic quality tends to cause the viewer to identify with the characters being portrayed. Thus, skillful application of production and editing techniques, such as having a central character act the behavioral patterns desired, can be very effective. The tendency to identify with the actors aids in developing a high degree of audience involvement in the propaganda appeal.
Motion pictures gain attention, especially among illiterate groups, as illiteracy is not a barrier to understanding and use.
Most children and a high percentage of adults accept without question presumably factual information presented in films.
Sight, sound, and color reinforced by moving images elicit a high degree of interest and recall.
The motion picture is a universal communications medium, combining audiovisual features, mass distribution, and ease of presentation.
Complicated events or complex ideas can be thoroughly explained. Cartoons and other special effects can be particularly effective.
Scenes can be rehearsed and perfected prior to filming.
Newsreels that show events known to the target audience enhance the credibility of the entire PSYOP program.
Motion pictures can be rerun.
DISADVANTAGES
The production of high-quality motion pictures is extremely expensive and requires skilled technical production personnel.
Relatively lengthy motion picture production time makes it difficult to capitalize on targets of opportunity.
Films are rapidly outdated by events, clothing, vehicles, equipment, location, or dialogue.
Viewing by target audiences may be restricted because of security considerations, local regulations, or equipment capabilities.
Diverse language differences are a major problem; these can, however, be partially overcome by use of subtitles.
Projection equipment requires electric power which may not always be available.
Film is fragile and extremely susceptible to changes in temperature and other climatic conditions.
LOUDSPEAKERS
Microphones and sound amplifying equipment transmit messages up to a distance of 800 meters. In a civilian setting loudspeakers are used to communicate with assembled groups and in localized street broadcasting. They effectively extend the range of face-to-face communications.
Loudspeakers are the most responsive medium that can be used to support tactical operations. Unsophisticated loudspeaker messages can be developed on the spot and delivered live in fast-moving situations. Propaganda loudspeaker broadcasts are usually prerecorded to insure accuracy. Occasionally, standard tapes are developed, mass produced, and distributed from the theater or national level.
ADVANTAGES
Targets of opportunity can be exploited.
Persuasive messages can be transmitted to the target as the situation changes.
Loudspeakers can be an extension of face-to-face communication.
The operator can pinpoint his target.
The target audience can be illiterate.
The loudspeaker can be used to undermine enemy morale.
Operators can be easily and readily trained.
PSYOP personnel can move to and operate anywhere a potential target audience is located.
Large, powerful, fixed loudspeakers can broadcast messages considerable distances into enemy territory.
Loudspeakers may be mounted on either wheeled or tracked vehicles.
Loudspeaker systems can be mounted in either fixed or rotary-wing aircraft. This broadens the areas accessible for loudspeaker operations. Since both types of aircraft must operate at low altitudes for the message to be understood on the ground, the sophistication and intensity of the enemy air defense are prime considerations.
Small portable loudspeaker systems may be backpacked by dismounted troops.
DISADVANTAGES
Range is limited by humidity, wind, precipitation, vegetation, terrain, and manmade structures.
The enemy can readily take countermeasures; i.e., concentrate artillery or other weapons on loudspeaker personnel and equipment.
Messages may be forgotten and distorted with the passage of time.
PLANNING AND COORDINATION
Loudspeaker operations are conducted in coordination with and in support of tactical operations. The loudspeaker team leader must advise the commander of the supported unit as to the support the team can give. The team can then obtain essential operational information and coordinate security with the leader of the tactical unit.
For maximum results, loudspeaker messages in support of tactical operations must have shock effect. A tactical broadcast should be no longer than a few seconds, as prolonged broadcasting from a fixed position will draw indirect enemy fire. The message should be carefully prepared, so that each sentence constitutes a single, complete thought that will not be misunderstood. The key sentence should be short and repeated for emphasis.
The size of the target area, the character and loudness of competing sounds, the terrain, and climatic conditions (humidity, wind, temperature, etc.) affect reception of loudspeaker messages. Sound travels better at night in low temperature and humidity. In hilly or mountainous terrain, echoes may interfere with clear reception. Jungle and heavily vegetated areas absorb sound. Sounds projected over water or low-lying coastal plains travel great distances.
The announcer, generally indigenous to the operational area, must have idiomatic language fluency. Defectors may be used. They will know the current slang, topics of interest, and the problems of the enemy soldier. Their messages, however, must always be prerecorded and checked prior to being broadcast. The announcer must have
An intimate and detailed knowledge of the customs, folklore, and speech habits of the audience.
The ability to adapt script and presentation to the changing situation.
A vigorous, unemotional delivery.
An understanding of the military situation and its implications.
Broadcasting messages from aircraft is an effective way to reach an otherwise inaccessible audience. Some general considerations are:
The PSYOP unit is responsible for the pre-mission briefing of the air crew. This briefing covers target location, current intelligence, total time required over the target, the length of the message, and the number of repetitions desired.
The loudspeaker message should be no longer than 20 seconds so that the entire message is audible to the audience.
Rotary-wing aircraft use banks of speakers mounted either internally or externally on the aircraft. The most effective altitude for a hovering rotary-wing aircraft is between 900 and 1,200 meters (3,000 and 4,000 feet) above ground level (AGL). The banking or orbiting course is effective at altitudes from 600 to 900 meters (2,000-3,000 feet) AGL. The presence and capabilities of enemy ground fire will determine whether to use these patterns or whether to use aerial loudspeakers at all.
The US Air Force has primary responsibility for aerial loudspeaker operations from fixed-wing aircraft.
An adapter system has been developed that permits the connection of the airborne loudspeaker system with the intercommunications and radio system of the aircraft. This allows a signal received by the aircraft from a ground radio transmitter to be rebroadcast to the target audience. The use of this system permits a language-qualified speaker in a central location to support widely dispersed ground elements. The device can be connected to a tape recorder to record the message for future use.
RADIO
Radio broadcasts can be transmitted to local audiences, or across national boundaries, and behind enemy lines. Political boundaries or tactical situations may hinder radio broadcasts, but they are not complete barriers. Since radio can reach mass target audiences quickly, it is useful for all types of psychological operations. Where radio stations are not common and receivers rare or nonexistent, receivers may be airdropped or otherwise distributed to key communicators, public installations, and selected individuals. Public listener systems may also be set up.
ADVANTAGES
Speed. Radio programs can be quickly prepared for broadcast. This is important when attempting to capitalize on targets of opportunity.
Wide coverage. Radio programs can reach members of large and varied audiences simultaneously.
Ease of perception. It requires little or no effort to visualize the radio message. Illiteracy does not prevent the listener from forming his individual image as he listens.
Versatility. Radio is easily adaptable to drama, music, news, and other types of programs.
Emotional power. A skilled radio announcer can exert tremendous influence on the listener simply with pitch, resonance, inflection, or timing.
Availability of receivers. Where availability or ownership of receivers is common, listening to radio is a habit. Ownership of receivers has increased greatly with the invention of transistors.
DISADVANTAGES
Enemy restrictions. The target group may be subjected to severe censorship, thereby reducing the effectiveness of radio broadcasts. Some countries have only single channel radios with the frequency set to the government-owned station. In some areas central receivers are connected to household receivers to control listening.
Jamming. Jamming may prevent the target group from receiving radio broadcasts .
Technical. Signal may be made inaudible or distorted by fading or static due to unfavorable atmospheric conditions.
Lack of receivers. In certain areas, so few receivers are available that radio may not be an effective medium.
Fleeting impressions. Oral media do not have the permanency of written media. Messages may be quickly forgotten or distorted.
PROGRAMMING
Radio programming consists of planning the schedule, content, and production of programs during a stated period. Words, music, and sound effects are put together in various ways to produce the different kinds of programs. Some of the major types of radio programs are:
Straight news reports (without commentary).
Musical (popular, folk, classical).
Drama.
Speeches, talks, discussions.
Sports.
Interviews.
Special events; i.e., on-the-spot coverage of an election or the arrival of an important visitor, etc.
Religious.
Variety, a combination including music, skits, comedy, vaudeville, etc.
Announcements.
PRINCIPLES
Regularity. Regularity is an essential element of programming. The radio programmer must create habitual program patterns in order to build a regular audience. Content, style, and format should follow an established pattern.
Repetition. Repetition is necessary for oral learning; therefore, key themes, phrases, or slogans should be repeated.
Suitability. The radio program must suit the taste and needs of the audience. Program style and format should follow the patterns to which the audience is accustomed.
Exploitation of censorship. Discussion or presentation of banned books, plays, music, and political topics is readily received by the audience. The same is true for news withheld by censors. In breaking censorship, the psychological operator must be certain that the reason for censoring the items was political and not moral.
Voice. Having announcers with attractive voice features is essential to successful radio operations.
The emotional tone conveyed by the voice may influence the listener more than the logic of arguments.
Announcers whose accents are similar to those of unpopular groups should not be used.
Female voices are used to exploit nostalgia, sex frustration, or to attract female audiences. However, in some parts of the world, due to the status of women, female voices are resented.
CLASSIFICATION
Programs are classified according to content, intent, and origin:
Content. The most common and useful radio program classification is by content. News reporting, commentaries, announcements, educational or informative documentaries, music, interviews, discussions, religious programs, drama, and women's programs are the most common examples.
Intent. Classification by "intent" is useful in planning to obtain a desired response with a particular broadcast(s).
Programs are produced to induce such emotional reactions as confidence, hope, fear, nostalgia, frustration, etc.
Origin. Classification by "origin" pertains to the source of the message; i.e., official, unofficial, authoritative, high military command, political party, etc.
FORMAT
Format is the arrangement of the various segments of a program. A fundamental principle in preparing scripts for broadcasting is to standardize as much as possible without losing flexibility. A standard or familiar manner of presentation identifies a program for the viewers, helping to gain a regular audience. The format for a series of programs is usually established before the first program is broadcast. Radio station personnel, when establishing the format, should bear in mind that they must adhere to the highest professional standards of script writing.
PROGRAM BUILDING
The essential factors of program building are:
Purpose. The writer's first concern is the purpose of the program. What is it to accomplish? Careful construction of the purpose statement of the program will aid in structuring the program and provide a measuring device to determine if the goals are being met.
A credible program requires extensive research. Thorough research of a subject uncovers and provides hidden color and details which add a note of authority to the narrator.
Testing. The script is not completed when the last page is written; the announcer (or actor) must read it a loud ( rehearse it) to determine how it sounds.
SCRIPT WRITING
Principles:
Aural medium. The special characteristic of radio is that it is entirely an aural medium. Radio depends entirely on the ear and must work completely on the image inspired by the sound waves coming from the speaker system.
The sound of a voice (or music) in a radio presentation raises a particular image in the listener's mind. Radio scripts must make clear to the listener the scene or idea desired by the psychological operator.
Power of suggestion. The mind of each listener is a vast storehouse of scenery. The radio writer, through speech, music, and other sounds, enables the listener to visualize each scene.
Freedom of movement. The radio scriptwriter can change scenes as frequently as desired. He can rapidly take his listeners from one event or point on earth (or in space) to another-its all in the mind.
Conflict. Conflict is the attention-getter in a radio script, gaining and increasing audience interest. Conflict is the hero against the villain, good versus evil, the struggle for survival, etc., with the psychological operator offering the solution by way of his script(s).
TECHNIQUES
The imaginative application of techniques is a way to success. The writer must be constantly alert for new ideas and be willing to experiment with variations of old established techniques. The techniques discussed below apply equally to the preparation of scripts for television and loudspeaker operations:
Simplicity. Use simple sentences and words commonly used by the target audience. However, sentence length should be varied to avoid a singsong or monotonous effect.
Conversational style. Write news in a popular, informal, relaxed style. The listener should not be aware that the news is being read to him.
Speech speed. The normal rate of speech will vary among announcers. The scriptwriter should time the rate of speech of each announcer in the language used and tailor the script to gain maximum impact in the allotted time.
Initial attention. As the listener may be running the risk of severe punishment for listening to a forbidden broadcast, the broadcast must gain instant attention. The initial part of the script should convince the listener that the program will be of interest to him . Therefore, the essential facts need to be in the first few sentences to gain interest and to insure that nothing of importance is lost if the program is jammed.
Pacing and timing. Pacing refers to the changes in quality, emotion, thought, or feeling written into the program by the scriptwriter. Timing is controlled by the director and is a shift in the speed of message delivery.
Tongue twisters. Avoid words that successively begin with the same sounds, such as "In providing proper provisional procedures ... " Avoid words ending in "ch," "sh," "th." These sounds generally produce a hissing noise.
Numbers. Round numbers off, unless the specific number is important. For example, 20 thousand may be used instead of 20,158. Large numbers should be written in the manner easiest to read: one billion 200 million 50 thousand instead of 1,200,050,000.
Unfamiliar names. Avoid beginning a news item with a name that is unfamiliar to the target audience. Introduce the names as "The chief of police, Mr. Jones ... "
Quotes. The listener cannot see quotation marks. By voice inflection, the announcer can make it clear when a quotation begins and ends. Other methods may be used to indicate a quotation:
In Smith's own words ...
To quote Smith ...
As Smith states ...
Punctuation. Ordinary punctuation marks are ignored in script writing. They can, however, be used as a guide for the announcer. For example, parentheses may be used to set off a phrase. Key words should be capitalized for emphasis. Phonetic spelling may be used to help the announcer with difficult words.
Profanity and horror. The announcer, speaking as a representative of his government and in keeping with the image of the serious, sincere spokesman, will not use profanity in his broadcasts. He will not use horrible descriptions of human suffering, although objective reports have a legitimate place in radio.
Abbreviations. Conventional abbreviations are seldom used. In script writing "Mister" is used instead of "Mr." Any abbreviations used must be familiar to the target audience.
MONITORING
Radio monitoring provides information to the PSYOP current intelligence team on:
The enemy's domestic and foreign propaganda programs.
The propaganda the enemy aims at his own military forces in the field.
Propaganda directed at our forces, and the necessary countermeasures which can and should be taken.
Radio monitoring also provides information for evaluating the effectiveness of US and allied PSYOP. The frequency band is scanned on a random basis to intercept other broadcasts of interest to the US and allied forces.
Operational rules require monitoring personnel to:
Be objective when giving the monitoring reports.
Be familiar with the names of persons and places likely to appear in the monitored broadcast.
Monitor only the station(s) to which assigned. Scan the frequency band only when directed.
-Record the identity of the monitored station, the date and time, and other relevant information pertaining to the monitored broadcast.
-Bring significant information to the attention of superiors immediately. Do not wait to make a scheduled report.
-Use phonetic spelling when in doubt as to the spelling of strange names and places.

 

Leaflet
"Leaflet" is based upon "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published in August 1979 by Department of the Army Headquarters in Washington DC; and "Psychological Operations (PSYOP) Media Subcourse PO-0816" by The Army Institute for Professional Development, published in 1983



LEAFLET

A leaflet is a written or pictorial message on a single sheet of paper. It has no standard size, shape, or format.


CATEGORIES OF LEAFLETS

Leaflets may be categorized as persuasive, informative, and directive.


LEAFLET USE

Leaflets are developed for specific uses, such as standard, special situation, safe conduct, and news.


Disadvantages of Standard Leaflets:

    1. Use in tactical operations. Tactical PSYOP achieve maximum results when leaflets have specific relevance at the moment of receipt, when psychological pressures are greatest, and when a reasonable course of action is presented. For example, surrender becomes a reasonable course of action only when under current conditions no other alternative action seems plausible.
    2. Use in strategic operations. Strategic PSYOP are made more effective by the use of special situation leaflets that deal with specific problems and discuss them in terms of current facts. The impact is usually cumulative, rather then immediate, extending over weeks, months, or years. These leaflets are used primarily to communicate with special targets, such as foreign workers in enemy or occupied countries, ethnic or religious groups, members of a particular industrial facility or industry, and friendly resistance groups.
    3. Operational considerations. The following operational considerations should determine the use of special situation leaflets:
      -Serve as a means for timely exploitation of psychological opportunities.
      -Serve as a means to communicate more intimately with the target audience and permit the message to be more precisely slanted to the immediate and particular needs of the audience.


PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAFLETS


LEAFLET PRINCIPLES

Desirable Leaflet Writer Qualifications:

A single, local national leaflet writer with all the qualifications listed below is rarely obtainable. Yet every effort must be made to obtain a writer with these qualities:


Writing for Maximum Effectiveness:

Because the text of the message is limited by space and other considerations, the writer must persuade the enemy with the reasonableness or emotional content of his message so that the reader will be motivated either to pass it on to others or to relay the message by word of mouth.


Writing Objectively:

Objectivity is the keynote of effective leaflet writing. Although it is difficult to do, the efficient leaflet writer puts aside all personal prejudices and biases when writing for enemy consumption. The leaflet writer depends upon intelligence agencies for information upon which to base his leaflet appeals. This information must not be adapted to fit the writer's own personal views. Rather, it must fit the emotional and thought process of the audience, and be pertinent to the primary interests of its members.


Writing Positively:

Assertion, not negotiation, is the stock in trade of the leaflet writer. The PSYOP writer has, without doubt, the toughest selling job in the world. Every facility at the disposal of the enemy, from domestic propaganda to military strength, is aimed at discrediting or refuting the writer's statements. A negative attitude, therefore, is interpreted by the enemy as a sign of weakness. Only positive appeals can wear down the psychological barrier the enemy has erected against the PSYOP writer. Furthermore, enemy propaganda may be designed to influence the opponent to deny something; and if the propagandist retaliates by categorically denying enemy accusations, he may be supplying data for which the enemy has been probing.


LEAFLET COMPOSITION

Typography:

Although leaflets generally are small, they should contain comparatively large print, particularly when directed toward the enemy. However, a small leaflet with large print makes it necessary to use a text that is brief, to the point, and immediately attractive. Since enemy personnel and civilians in areas under enemy control are prohibited from picking up or reading leaflets from external sources, the large print enables them to read the message without touching the leaflet. In case the reader wishes to hide the leaflet and read it surreptitiously at a later time, a small leaflet is more easily concealed. The type must be large enough to be perfectly legible and familiar to the audience. While the heading and subheading may vary in size, body type should be 8 points or larger. If the Roman alphabet is not used in the target area, provision must be made to obtain the proper type reproduction capability. In covert operations, type and paper must be that which is available within, and common to, the target area in order to maintain the facade required in black or gray propaganda operations.


Color:

A judicious use of color is important in the appearance of the leaflet. The number of colors available will be limited by the type of printing equipment available. When two or more colors can be used, the following factors should be considered:


Photographs:

Photographs often are used as documentary proof of particular incidents or events. Pictures of bombed enemy cities showing well-known landmarks are proof to enemy soldiers that their homeland is in fact being subjected to devastating air raids. Pictures of healthy prisoners eating hearty meals tend to reduce the enemy's fears that he will be maltreated if he becomes a prisoner. To insure sharp pictures, only clear photographic plates should be used. Since photographs and illustrations carry a message, they must be arranged and numbered in a culturally logical sequence. For example, in some cultures the sequence of reading is from right to left, in others from top to bottom and right to left. Placing a number in front of the caption which accompanies a photograph or illustration makes it easier for the reader to follow the sequence. Caption all photographs and illustrations. If this is not done, the reader may not understand the point the message is trying to make.


Cartoons and Drawings:

Cartoons and drawings, when done in a manner appealing to the target audience, are invaluable assets in supporting the theme of a leaflet. may attract the eye; they help to present a more attractive format; they tend to leave lasting impressions; they may interpret the message for illiterates who cannot read the accompanying message; and they may be used with a slogan or without printed messages.


Format Symmetry:

Headlines, subheadings, photographs, cartoons, drawings, captions, and text should be so arranged as to present an attractive and symmetrical appearance. Variety in format is important in a leaflet campaign except in the use of surrender or safe conduct passes which are standardized throughout the theater of operations for recognition purposes.


PRESENTING THE LEAFLET TEXT

Heading:

The leaflet heading is normally the most important part of the leaflet because it is the part that first catches the eye. In composing the heading, the propaganda writer must be brief, summarizing the theme by using short, forceful words.


Subheading:

Leaflet subheadings are used when it is impossible to summarize the text in the main heading and further explanation is needed to point out the significance of the message. They may also be used to introduce separate paragraphs in the body of the text and to bridge gaps between headline and text.


Text:

To gain the interest of a target audience within the first few words, the first sentence or two of the text should contain the substance of the message, with the facts and details following. Credible and verifiable facts whether favorable or not, are the backbone of the leaflet message because they demand attention. The target audience often risks death or severe punishment for reading leaflets; thus, the information must be of vital importance for the audience to continue to read leaflets. Because of space limitations, the text should be simple and to the point, presenting the message to the target audience without confusing him. The leaflet normally presents only one theme. A leaflet which presents two or more unrelated or vaguely related themes confuses the target audience and detracts from the relative persuasive strength of each theme. If more than one theme is used, they should be closely related.


Pictures:

When pictures, preferably photographs, are used, the picture and the text must complement each other-convey the same idea to the target audience, each expanding the ideas of the other.


LEAFLET DISSEMINATION

Printed material is the one medium that must be physically delivered to a target audience. This presents problems when attempting to disseminate printed propaganda in enemy held territory. In denied areas, printed propaganda is generally disseminated by air delivery, line-crossers, military patrols, or international mail.

The method of delivery depends upon a variety of factors, such as:


AIR-TO-GROUND DELIVERY

Paper quality affects the drift of airdropped leaflets. If a leaflet, which offers little or no wind resistance, is dropped from a flying aircraft, it will be blown at about the same speed and direction as the wind. If there are updrafts or down drafts, the leaflet will still follow the general direction of the wind. In areas of no turbulence the constant pull of gravity acting upon the leaflet will cause it to fall at a fairly constant rate. The basic objective of leaflet drops is to place sufficient leaflets on the ground to insure that every member of the target audience will see (not necessarily possess) a leaflet. To insure that members of the target audience chance upon leaflets, their location and activities must be considered. Target mobility has a great bearing on the number and density of leaflets dropped and on the area that must be covered. A basic difference between falling leaflets is the type of motion they assume during descent. This can be one of two forms:
An autorotating leaflet is one which exhibits a rotating motion about its longest axis. The other types of fall (flip-flop, spiraling, etc.) can be grouped together for purposes of analysis. In general these have somewhat more rapid and less stable type of descent than the autorotators.


Aerial distribution of leaflets:
Leaflets printed or distributed in areas of high humidity tend to stick together. Ruffling one or both ends of the leaflet stack insures complete dispersion.


SURFACE DELIVERY
The ground patrol is a useful element for disseminating small amounts of printed material behind enemy lines. Posters, leaflets, pamphlets, kits, and novelties may be placed or scattered by patrols and reconnaissance elements, usually while on regular missions.

Leaflets, posters, and propaganda items can be left behind during retrograde movements.
 
 

 

PRINTED MATERIAL
"Printed Material" is based upon "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published in August 1979 by Department of the Army Headquarters in Washington DC; and "Psychological Operations (PSYOP) Media Subcourse PO-0816" by The Army Institute for Professional Development, published in 1983


PRINTED MATERIAL

Printed material, which includes leaflets, newspapers, posters, handbills, books, magazines, and such items as novelties, trinkets, and gifts with messages printed on them, is major means of conveying propaganda. A propaganda message printed on substantial material is a relatively permanent document. Once printed and delivered, it can be retained and readily passed from person to person without distortion.
A properly developed and designed message (shape, color, format, texture, and other physical characteristics have been duly considered) can have a deep and lasting effect on the target audience.
ADVANTAGES
The printed word has a high degree of acceptance, credibility, and prestige.
Printed matter is unique in that it can be passed from person to person without distortion.
It allows for the reinforcing use of photographs and graphic illustrations which can be understood by illiterates.
It is permanent and the message will not change unless it is physically altered.
It can be disseminated and read or viewed by a larger, widespread target audience.
It can be reread for reinforcement.
Complex and lengthy material can be explained in detail.
It can be hidden and read in private.
Messages can be printed on almost any surface, including useful items.
Printed material can gain prestige by acknowledging authoritative and expert authors. This is particularly important in those societies where the printed word is authoritative.
DISADVANTAGES
A high illiteracy rate reduces the effectiveness and usefulness of the printed message.
Printing operations require special, extensive, continuing logistical support.
Dissemination is time-consuming and costly, requiring the use of special facilities and complex coordination.
As printed material must be physically delivered to the target audience, the enemy can prevent or interfere with its dissemination.
It is less timely than other means of communication.
It can be collected and destroyed by the enemy.
It can be altered by overprinting.
Where prohibited, it can readily be uncovered by search and stringent penalties imposed for possession.
Development and design of effective printed material requires trained and knowledgeable personnel.
PRINTED MATERIAL TECHNIQUES
Do's
Compile catalogs of printed material and make known their existence.
Use illustrations. They increase the attractiveness of the item, arouse the attention of the target audience, and convey meaningful information in a relatively small space. Illustrations are valuable when they enhance the printed message. The best illustrations are clear and appropriate. Use illustrations that show action.
Use photographs instead of sketches whenever possible (except when a sketch, e.g., a cartoon, a caricature, etc., will best evoke a desired emotion within the target audience). People regard photographs as positive proof of events being depicted. Thus, credibility can be markedly enhanced by using photographs of the actual scene or person rather than an artist's conception. Use sharp photographs; out-of-focus or blurred photographs reduce audience interest and the credibility of the message.
Use letters. Letters obtained from defectors, prisoners of war (always adhere to the Geneva Conventions), and other former enemy personnel can be extremely effective. There are, however, a few rules that should be followed:
Do not write letters for someone else. A letter that sounds as though it were written by other than the signing party has no credibility.
You may suggest possible themes and specific details, but the letter must be written by the signator.
Among some audiences poetry can be an effective medium for emotional and sentimental appeals. Good poetry elicits highly favorable reactions, but bad poetry elicits unfavorable reactions. In order to assure quality, well-known, popular poets should be employed.
Don'ts
Do not use long text (particularly in leaflets, posters, and handbills). People in enemy controlled territory may have to read the printed item surreptitiously. A lengthy text increases the possibility of discovery and reduces the likelihood that people will risk reading it. Long texts discourage the average reader, and the poorly educated may not even try to read lengthy items.
Avoid small print; it discourages readers. Size of print must permit the message to be read immediately.
Avoid duplication of material. Issue only the superior product.
Do not distribute obsolete propaganda. Many printed items have a period of maximal impact. If distributed after the time for which they were meant, the impact may be minimal, nil, or adverse. Therefore, carefully watch for and do not reorder obsolete items (leaflets, posters, etc.).
POSTERS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, BOOKS, BANNERS, GIFTS, PERSONAL DISPLAY ITEMS
Printed matter used in psychological operations known as slow media includes posters, pamphlets, books, magazines, reprints, gifts, and other items that contain printed messages. These materials are used primarily in populated and heavily traveled areas.
POSTERS
Posters include all single-sheet printed and graphic (illustrations, sketches, photographs, and symbols) materials which impart a message by being publicly posted. They are used to inform; their ultimate purpose is to enlist support. Poster is generally emotionally colored, intended primarily to influence emotions and gain emotional support. The message of a poster should be one that can be remembered easily and is free of argument or irritation. It should be clear and normally should occupy the topical center of the poster so that is will be read first. Slogans should be highlighted. The use of pictures and illustrations is fundamental in the makeup of a poster. Pictures not only help to attract an audience, but they increase the audience's understanding of the propaganda message. All such material, however, should be directly related to the main propaganda point of the message; it should add unity, implying support for the message.
Posters are a universal medium, easy and inexpensive to produce and place-almost any surface is suitable. Since they present their message pictorially, they have a universal audience that includes illiterates. Properly placed, they cannot be avoided. When placed where people congregate, they stimulate discussion, broadening the impact of the message.
Since the opinions of neutral or other non involved foreign audiences may affect the courses of action of the enemy government, its security forces, or its allied and assisting government, posters should be made interesting and appealing to these foreign audiences.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Format. Use formats, art styles, and forms that are familiar to and appropriate for the target audience. If possible, produce an art form that people want to possess and display.
Graphics. Give maximum space to simple graphic productions. They attract an audience and significantly increase the impact of the message. Complex graphics, on the other hand, generally confuse the audience and are subject to ambiguous and undesirable interpretations by the audience.
Photographs. Use photographs or photomontages. People believe them. The less sophisticated the audience, the greater the belief.
Symbols. Use symbols, inanimate and animate (including human), that are significant to the target audience. Symbols which have positive characteristics (bravery, integrity, leadership, etc.) to the target add prestige and impact to the message.
Color. As colors have different connotations in different societies, it is important that colors and color combinations used in posters be appropriate to the culture of the target audience. Improper colors may be counterproductive or, at best, nonproductive.
Print for a moving target. It may be necessary for people to read the unfriendly poster while on the move. Therefore, the poster should be printed in letters of a size that can be read and seen at distances from 10 to 15 meters. For example, an enemy government may impose stringent penalties on any members of its armed forces or civilian population displaying an interest in enemy posters. Or if an enemy shadow government is active and effective, a display of interest in a poster may result in loss of life or limb, injury to family, or destruction of property.
Main point. The main point, clearly and immediately stated, should occupy the visual center of the poster so it is seen first. In addition, all textual material must relate to the main point of the message.
The appeal. Make the appeal positive, emotional, simple, and appropriate to the action desired. The poster is too compact to present complex arguments. Do not inflame emotions to the point of violent actions when such actions are neither appropriate nor desired. Overreaction may result in loss of liberty or life and of PSYOP effectiveness.
Slogans. Slogans reinforce the graphic art and convey emotional appeals that will be long remembered. They are extremely effective in highly authoritative societies and cultures when related to highly emotional issues. In areas of mass literacy those who cannot read will hear the slogans spoken frequently, ask the literates to explain them, or have readers available.
Cliches. Cliches, catchwords, and popular and stereotyped phrases may also be featured with somewhat the same effect as slogans.
Distribution. The following is a list of suggested considerations for the distribution of posters.
Posters must be distributed according to a plan. Unplanned, hit or miss poster placement has no place in a campaign.
In some operations in friendly countries, the operator must consider the legal status of his operations. In many countries and localities, placarding is governed by laws and ordinances, and may affect PSYOP. Often the PSYOP officer will be working with approval of, or in cooperation with, local authorities. In some countries, it may be necessary to obtain licenses for posters. Occasionally, advance blanket approval of all information materials is obtainable though diplomatic channels.
Desirable locations must be identified and given priority according to the intensity of the situation.
Posters should be placarded in those areas through which the target audience will pass during the time between the posting and the planned moment of communication.
Posters are peculiarly vulnerable to counter propaganda. This factor must guide the operator in the location of the propaganda message. Whenever possible, the operator should carefully choose poster sites in order to reduce the opposition's opportunity to deface the material.
Outdated posters should be removed prior to action from the opposition. The operator should, therefore, remove posters based on message timeliness, validity, and credibility.
Placement. Place and display posters where people naturally and habitually gather, and where they have little or nothing to do for brief periods of time; e.g., bus and tram stops, rail stations and depots, parks, outdoor cafes, etc. Posters so displayed are most likely to be exposed to an audience and read.
Viewers tend to associate the poster with the area of placement. This is one reason why posters placed in areas dangerously reached (mountainsides, railroad trestles, water tanks, high walls, etc.) evoke admiration and have a high impact. By the same line of audience reasoning, posters placed in demeaning areas lose their effectiveness.
ADVANTAGES
Posters have several advantages as a vehicle for the propaganda message. They are a mass medium of communication. Their color and sometimes spectacular illustrations attract and hold the reader's attention. They are expedient and their handling requires few personnel. When posters are placed in areas where people congregate, they are read by more than one person at a time and often stimulate discussion, thereby broadening the impact of the message. Finally, posters present their ideas pictorially and hence will have some meaning for illiterates.
DISADVANTAGES
Limitations for posters exist, of course. Production problems may preclude their preparation locally; therefore, the message must be general in content. Posters are subject to weather conditions. They may be easily removed, destroyed, or defaced. Outdated posters may be used in enemy propaganda. Since a weather-beaten, obsolete, or defaced poster is a liability, remove it quickly. This requires frequent visits to poster sites.
MAGAZINES, PAMPHLETS, REPRINTS
Magazines, pamphlets, and reprints-although differing in length, use of illustrative material, and regularity of distribution-generally have common features as propaganda media:
All are relatively expensive to produce and distribute.
There is no limitation as to the kind of propaganda messages they can carry.
The audience range is unlimited--youth groups, the mass of the population, intellectuals, professionals, etc.
These materials may be dropped from the air, mailed, delivered by messenger, placed in libraries and public areas, or handed out at meetings and rallies or surreptitiously handed out. The contents may be read and discussed on radio and television.
ADVANTAGES
These publications have the basic advantages common to newspapers:
They are relatively permanent.
A wide variety of material may be presented, such as:
Complex and lengthy articles.
Technical and professional information and data.
News, features, and items of popular interest.
Material may be set in a format and edited to appeal to the complete spectrum of audience groups.
Colorful (and colored) graphic presentations may be made.
DISADVANTAGES
These publications also have the disadvantages inherent in newspapers:
Production and distribution are time-consuming, complex, and expensive.
They are not suitable for targets of opportunity.
If national policy or situations change, they can be reminders of past policy and situations and used by the enemy.
Magazines and pamphlets require the services of skilled editorial and production personnel.
NEWSPAPERS
General Format and Content. Newspapers must gain acceptance from the audience. Format is very important, e.g., the London Times versus the New York Times. An audience, as anyone else, is most at ease and trusts that newspaper with which it is most familiar. Format is the first indicator of familiarity (or strangeness). If the format is unfamiliar, the audience may ignore the contents. Thus, proper content is essential to the success of a newspaper. Content is limited by available space, but a well-balanced publication contains several or all of the elements listed below:
War news. Through special intelligence and other sources, the propagandist can quickly gather reliable news of happenings on the battlefield. This gives the paper a cloak of reliability in its war news which, it is reasonable to assume, many readers transfer unconsciously to home news and feature columns. News about the war is localized to a maximum extent because of its immediate interest to the audience, but information of action on the other and distant fronts would be presented to place the entire military effort in proper perspective and, in addition, to project a favorable image of the host country.
Homefront news. News items concerning morale on the home front, political, economic, or social inequalities at home, effects of bombing raids, and similar items help in promoting disaffection among soldiers and civilians.
World news. Accounts of events in the world at large are generally of interest to readers but secondary to news closer to home. News of international developments of vital consequence to the target audience, however, will strike a response in the enemy reader. It is particularly important to feature items that show world opinion to oppose enemy policies, practices, and activities. Readers are also interested in prospects for their country after the cessation of hostilities.
Spot news. weekly publications should use a spot news column to report important events not covered in detail in a particular issue of the paper. A spot news column serves to summarize the principal news of the week and should be featured by a border of spacing. Items are listed chronologically and, if space permits, should be prefaced by a dateline. Ordinarily, no more than a brief sentence need be devoted to each item.
Feature and background articles. To attract an audience and to increase reader interest, newspapers contain special feature articles on subjects of immediate interest and which are helpful to the reader.
Other news. Brief news of sports, movies, popular music, etc., may be used as an audience-gaining device as well. Such news has propaganda value when used to laud the achievements of one side and to belittle the efforts of the other. Weather reports for the target area may be printed as long as security is not violated. Latest developments in the weapons field are of interest to both the civilian and the soldier and enhance the theme of material superiority.
Use of Illustrative Material. Most newspaper readers are interested in newspaper illustrations and photographs. Illustrations and photographs are easily comprehended by all readers. Illustrative materials enhance the appearance and even the prestige of the newspaper. Most frequently used illustrative materials include montage, sketches, maps, caricatures, cartoons, photographic prints, and photographic sketches or portraits. Photographs are preferred over sketches as they are more readily accepted as factually portraying conditions, situations, events, or the environment in general.
Content in Foreign Internal Defense Operations. The techniques suggested above can be used by propaganda units in FID operations. In such operations, however, emphasis is given to local efforts to combat insurgent actions and causes.
TECHNIQUES OF NEWSPAPER PREPARATION.
Objectivity. The propagandist attempts an objective approach in the newspaper, just as he does in other news media. This is generally easy to do when the situation is favorable to us, but obviously more difficult when the situation becomes unfavorable. me propaganda of a newspaper must not be obvious to the target audience. Appeals must be subtle.
Familiarity. Unless policy objectives dictate otherwise, the newspaper conforms closely to standards with which the target audience is familiar and content should be consistent both with the purpose of the propagandist and with the reading habits of the audience, as must format.
Makeup. The newspaper must contain serious and light news, good news, and bad news, in reasonable proportions. Overemphasis on bad news has a tiring and even morbid effect upon the reader, causing him to ignore the newspaper. An excessively light approach also fails to have a favorable propaganda effect because it suggests a frivolous approach to the news. Knowledge of the psychological makeup of the target audience and its reading habits will help determine the proper makeup of the newspaper.
Timing. A close relationship exists between the conflict situation and the nature and timing of newspapers. Those published in fluid situations differ radically in both content and purpose from those produced in static periods. The newspapers must be timely and accurate. Thus, where the combat situation is changing constantly, propaganda concentrates on reporting the news quickly, capitalizing upon the psychological impact of fresh news. When the combat situation is stable or there are no actual hostilities, the tone of a newspaper changes. The propagandist uses static periods to build credibility by shifting emphasis of presentation to material which the enemy can thoughtfully accept, by wider use of nonlocal news, and by occasionally using items which favor the hostile opposition to suggest the enemy is not totally evil, particularly by use of items concerned with facets of enemy culture (art, music, science, etc.) that flourished under friendly regimes.
BOOKS
Books are valuable when available to the audience, where there is an interest in them, and time is available to read them.
Manuscripts offered for publication may indicate popular feeling concerning local conditions, the government, the military, etc.
In the early stages of consolidation of occupied areas, PSYOP units will normally assist in distributing books from US or allied sources. PSYOP personnel may also be called upon to assist in a program to rehabilitate the book publishing industry.
The use of local publishers makes it easier to establish book translation programs by publishing, in the local language and at prices within the reach of the target group, selected books of friendly persuasion. Production shortages are likely to exist; therefore, paper stocks, ink, photographic supplies, and other material must be issued on a priority basis to approved publishers, concentrating on priority subjects.
Censorship may be necessary, even of translations of seemingly harmless literature.
A well-planed book program, including children's books, is of great value, particularly in education (and reeducation) programs. Books on any subject can be provided to all target groups. Popular reading will attract the less educated groups. Other books may help to acquaint the target audience with the achievements, aims, and advantages of the programs, activities, and operations of the United States, allies, or host country. A book written by a member (or ex-member) of the target audience can be most influential.
BANNERS
A banner is any piece of flag-like cloth, paper, or similar surface on which a message is drawn. A banner may be any size or shape, stationary or mobile.
They generally have a one-time use in intensely emotional situations. The message is short, hard hitting, and emotional with only one theme; it may be a rallying point for adherents to a cause. Banners indicate commitment on the part of those who make or carry them.
The major advantages of banners are their symbolism and ability to rally people to a cause. Other advantages are their high visibility and mobility. Banners are a complementary medium, however, and quickly become obsolete.
PERSONAL DISPLAY ITEMS
Personal items such as buttons, vehicular stickers, clothing (e.g., T-shirts), or jewelry which display a belief or cause indicate a relatively high degree of commitment. If seen in public at different times and places, they give the appearance of strength for the cause the propagandist advocates. People like winners, and this appearance of strength gains adherents.
Some of the items are relatively expensive, but if attractive, they will be sold. Purchase of expensive items is an indication of strong attachment to the cause represented by the purchased item.
GIFTS AND NOVELTIES
Gifts and novelties are used in PSYOP to carry propaganda messages. Such items as soap, matches, needles, salt, seeds, and other articles of utilitarian or practical value make suitable gifts acceptable for general distribution. Their psychological effect is subtle and suggestive. Novelties such as puzzles, wall stickers, balloons, greeting cards, and other novel printed matter of no direct utilitarian value may carry brief propaganda messages and may be distributed for psychological purposes. Additionally, the use of novelties may exploit the superstitious inclinations of certain target audiences; e.g., use of voodoo dolls against certain African tribes, etc.
Use.
The use of gifts in propaganda operations should be weighed by the highest operating echelon because:
Gifts and novelties are expensive; consequently, they should be used only if there is strong reason for believing that the item carrying the propaganda message will substantially contribute to the psychological mission.
The production of these articles or objects requires scarce materials and the use of valuable personnel, all of which, other things being equal, might make a greater contribution if devoted to another priority activity.
To be effective, gifts and novelties must be phased into the overall PSYOP program at the proper time and should be used to reinforce other propaganda operations.
Content.
Gifts add dimension to a PSYOP program when used with imagination. The propagandist can effectively achieve his objective with these items. Although they are usually small in size, the gifts need only contain the known symbol of the sender, such as "good luck," "beware of the secret weapon," "stay away from bridges," etc.
The decision to use novelties or gifts and the determination whether they fit the politics, culture, and social conditions of the target should rest with the PSYOP community rather than with tactical units.
Gifts, being useful items, do not serve well for propaganda, for the impulse of the recipient is to use the gift, ignoring the message. Gifts small in size need only be stamped with or contain the known symbol of the donor, a slogan, or a brief message.
Gift wrappings or containers are also excellent media for messages, symbols, or slogans.
Normally, action messages should be avoided on gifts. An urgent warning or demand for serious sacrifices should not accompany trivial gifts.
The receipt of a useful or amusing item places the recipient in a receptive frame of mind for an accompanying propaganda message.
The major disadvantage of novelties and gifts is the cumulative expense of mass production and distribution. In addition, such items have only a peripheral, passive effect, seldom if ever moving people to action or changing opinions or emotions. At best, such items complement other media.

PRINTED MATERIAL (Appendix)
"Printed Material (Appendix)" is based upon "Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1" published in August 1979 by Department of the Army Headquarters in Washington DC; and "Psychological Operations (PSYOP) Media Subcourse PO-0816" by The Army Institute for Professional Development, published in 1983


PRINTED MATERIAL (Appendix)

Common Characteristics
As with other media, printed material must gain and hold attention, be credible and persuade the target audience. It should offer a solution that guides the target to a course of action which the psychological operator desires.
Elements of Printed Material
The composition of an item of printed material must reflect the proper use of the elements of printed matter.
1. Format
The material must be presented in a format to which the audience is accustomed, as the credibility and acceptance of an item presented in a strange format is decreased considerably.
2. Headline
A headline must attract attention and be easy to read, quickly understood, and provocative. It should be audience selective by relating to the needs and frames of reference of a selected target audience.
3. Sub headline
The sub headline bridges the gap between the headline and the copy text. It is not required on a leaflet or poster, unless the headline requires elaboration. The sub headline directs the reader's eye to the primary text.
4. Display lines
Display lines include headlines, sub headlines, and captions for illustrations other than copy text. They gain attention and enhance the written message.
5. Illustrations
An illustration enables both literate and illiterate audiences to get the general idea of the message without reading the text. It is desirable in preparing leaflets to use a single predominant illustration in order to communicate a central theme. Graphically, the illustration should contrast with the background so that as a mass, it is identifiable at a distance. Editorially, the illustration must be intimately tied to the text to convey the message to the non literate reader. Indigenous artists and photographers should be used to insure that the intended message is conveyed.
6. Copy text
The copy text refers to the written message exclusive of display lines. The development of the copy text involves the delicate task of establishing a psychological relationship with the audience. The writer must relate the frame of reference of the audience to the objective. Good copy text convinces the reader that only by accepting the course of action stated or implied can his needs be fulfilled. The development of the text should include familiar terms, phrases, and appropriate vernacular. For this reason, indigenous personnel should be used to write messages. Direct translation from English text are generally unclear and do not relate to the frame of reference of the audience.
7. White space
White space is the background area of printed material. When properly used, white space cannot be effectively overprinted by the enemy, since it complements the other elements. The objective is to make it difficult to overprint the white space in the poster, and make it appear to be a part of the original item.
Visualization
Once the theme and the elements of printed matter to be used have been determined, the idea must be fused into a single, well-balanced product. This process is known as visualization, or a mental representation of ideas.
Balance
Balance refers to distribution of weight, or the emphasis produced by contrasting colors, masses, and white space. To understand balance, we must note that the optical center operates as a fulcrum around which weights are distributed. The optical center is formally located slightly above the mathematical center of a visual presentation.
1. Formal balance
Formal balance is the equal distribution of weight on each side of a vertical line drawn from top to bottom, with the optical center as a reference point. Formal balance helps to portray dignity, conservatism, dependability, and stability. The paper currency of most countries is laid out with formal balance.
2. Informal balance
Informal balance is the unequal distribution of weight in the visual presentation. An informally balanced presentation is generally more dynamic and provocative than a formally balanced presentation. Any departure from formal format generally arouses interest.
3. Informal diagonal balance
Informal diagonal balance maintains proportional reference to the optical center of the presentation diagonally. Copy text and illustration are diagonally opposed in the illustration.
4. Grouping
Grouping is accomplished by the use of two or more forms of balance in a single presentation.
Eye Direction
The reader can be led through the printed presentation as desired by the psychological operator by using various methods of eye direction.
1. Suggestive eye direction
In this method, the psychological operator attempts to direct the eye by subtle means not obvious to the reader. In the World War II leaflet the angle of the rifle and the leaning of the figure of the Japanese soldier lead the reader from lower left up through the news of the German's surrender on the sheet in the soldiers' hand, to the poem which, in effect, states that further resistance is futile.
2. Sequential eye direction
In this method, the leaflet writer uses a sequence familiar to the audience in order to direct the eye through a series of presentations (for example by numbering each frame of the presentation.) In a World War II Allied leaflet the natural sequence of a clock is used to depict Allied progress in retaking the islands of the Pacific and that Japan itself was the final hour to be struck.
3. Mechanical eye direction
In this method, the psychological operator uses arrows and guiding lines to direct reader's attention through the significant points of the leaflet or poster. Mechanical eye direction is the most obvious method of eye direction.
Form
Printed matter is a visual medium of communication using impressed symbols to convey a message to a specific target.
Physical characteristics
Printed matter has the following major physical characteristics:
1. Permanency
A propaganda message printed on durable material will be a comparatively permanent document. Once printed and delivered, it may be retained indefinitely.
2. Color
Color, alone, may have meaning. The impact of the printed text and message may be enhanced by the use of colors which are significant to the target audience. For example, to an American, red signifies danger; yellow caution.
3. Shape
Shapes may convey a message to the target; The propagandist, therefore, needs an intimate knowledge of the symbols relevant to a particular society to exploit this device. For example, a leaflet in the shape of a leaf may signify death in some societies.